and Booker T. Washington
"We choose to be free. Our choice is the determining factor, no one can be your master until you play the part of a slave." – Dr. Molefi Asante
African Americans are in no small part responsible for the sentiments of society that lead people to help one another. The choice of “free” African Americans helping their brethren, as well as humane early European Americans helping “white” indentured servants and others shows that the generosity of today’s Americans did not drop out of the sky, nor was it born in Us. Rather, it is directly connected to behavior passed on by people who came before Us.
It is always a special moment when an historian finds evidence of an event of significance that has received no apparent attention. Especially, when the evidence here-to-mentioned survives as a monumental physical representation of one of the most intellectually stimulating debates in USA history since the Constitutional Convention of well over nine generations ago.
Nonetheless, right in the little historical town called Amherst, Massachusetts lies the only tangible connection between both the theory and practice of two of the most influential people in North American history, Dr. W.E.B. DuBois and Booker T. Washington.
It all began, about 170 years ago, with an African American minister named Reverend John A. V. Smith. Apparently, in someone's home and also, perhaps, outdoors (as he was also listed in town records as a laborer), Reverend Smith represents the first sign of a Black church. Of course, any preacher worth his or her bible knows that a church is not a "building." For religious worship it is an institution in North America as much as government itself. That is, neither bricks, stones, nor wood constitute the necessary elements needed to establish a church. Consequently, the combined faith of the congregation is the stuff of which a church is made.
The significance of Reverend Smith and his congregation forming their own body of worship is that, up until that point in the African American experience in Amherst, the only clergymen to which African Americans were exposed in the immediate area (without going to nearby Springfield - as many Black folks here often did) were European American ones whose "divinely-imposed" purposes were to convince African Americans to be docile and accommodating to European Americans.
Of course, in Amherst, Massachusetts, as in African American communities all over Our country, churches have been the dominating institutions for these folks socializing within the context of a community (as opposed to individual socializing such as concerts and so forth.) A generation after Reverend Smith's appearance in Amherst, around the end of the Civil War, some European Americans, particularly the authorities from Amherst College, became concerned about "saving the souls" of African Americans around town. This parental attitude being directed towards African Americans was running rampant throughout the country as many European American rulers and their agents were trying to figure out how to deal with the newly-enfranchised African American man and his community. Recognizing the clear differences between African and European spirituality, said rulers knew that controlling religious expression was extremely important in controlling the thoughts and acts of African Americans.
Local historian James A. Smith wrote that about 143 years ago: "...the Amherst College Church and faculty finding an 'opportunity to show tolerance in matters religious and racial' sponsored the Zion Mission Chapel Sunday School at Amherst, to which they sent their own children to be with Black people." Smith continues that some four years afterwards, "...this chapel had use of a building at the Southeast corner of present day Woodside Avenue and Northampton Road. This organization later split to form the Hope Congregational Church and the present Goodwin A.M.E. Zion Church." (Smith, Blacks in Early Amherst)
In the October 12th edition of the Amherst Record newspaper (forerunner of the current Amherst Bulletin), 108 years ago, the following report appeared, in part: A large audience assembled at College Hall last Wednesday evening, attracted by the announcement that Booker T. Washington, the most distinguished member of the colored race now living, would deliver an address on "Negro education, the proceeds to go toward the building fund of Zion Chapel.
The appearance of Washington itself is a big deal, since he was internationally-renowned and well-traveled. What is also significant about his visit (which was actually his second such lecture held in Amherst) was the fact that for the two main African American congregations in town, both Washington and Professor W.E.B. DuBois had come here in order to help raise money to build a church for each of them. Washington came to raise money for what is known today as Goodwin Memorial A.M.E. Zion Church and DuBois came about six years later for the benefit of Hope Church.
Ruth Goodwin (now deceased), the last surviving member of the family after whom the church is named, says, " We pulled out from the congregational church because the Amherst College had charge of it and a lot of our people thought it was nice to have our own people have charge of the church." (see Ms. Goodwin's interview with James Smith and Mary Commager, Jones Library, Amherst, Boltwood Collection)
To people who have, at least, a fair amount of knowledge regarding African American history, the idea of these two great men becoming involved in what was actually an intellectual "split" is an historic event of great significance. It, therefore, must be greatly appreciated that these two leaders, who have formed the basic ideological structure for most mass African American political and social movements during the past five generations, actually squared off both intellectually and practically - in a small New England town.
Both Washington and DuBois were very sincere men. However, they disagreed strongly about what direction African Americans should take in order to achieve group freedom. Washington felt that African Americans should be accommodating to Our European American brethren. That is, he urged Us not to be so concerned about political and social rights, instead insisting that We concentrate on establishing a more firm economic basis, by shunning intellectual education and opting for vocational skills and knowledge. In Washington's own words, "A ship lost at sea for many days suddenly sighted a friendly vessel. From the mast of the unfortunate vessel was seen a signal, 'Water, water; We die of thirst!'... The answer from the friendly vessel at once came back, 'Cast down your bucket where you are.'...The captain of the distressed vessel, at last heeding the injunction, cast down his bucket, and it came up full of fresh, sparkling water...To those of my race who underestimate the importance of cultivating friendly relations with the Southern white man, who is their next-door neighbor, I would say, 'Cast down your bucket where you are'-cast it down in making friends in every manly way of the people of all races by whom We are surrounded. Cast it down in agriculture, mechanics, in commerce, in domestic service, and in the professions." (excerpted from the Atlanta Exposition Address)
Although obviously well-intended, while Washington was asking African Americans to cast down their buckets, the European American southerners who were supposed to retrieve and send back said buckets had been lynching African Americans at a rate of two-per-day for years (what DuBois called the 'Lynching Industry'). Consequently, even more interesting to that Booker T. Washington supported the church that appeared to be demanding separation from the talons of Amherst College.
Yet, a closer look at an article that Booker T. had published in the North American Review, nine months after his second visit to Amherst, reveals why he supported the A.M.E. Zion Church. Here is a portion of the abovementioned essay called “ The Religious Life Of The Negro” from the book, The Black Church in America, edited by Nelsen, Yokley, and Nelsen, “Negro people, in respect to their religious life, have been, almost since they landed in America, in a process of change and growth...The struggle to attain a higher level of living, to get land, to build a home, to give their children an education - gives a steadiness and a moral significance to the religious life...It is encouraging to notice that the leaders of the different denominations of the Negro church - under their leadership, conditions are changing...the (national) A.M.E. Zion Church alone, $2 million was raised..."
Washington was a man of action, not just words. Therefore, to his credit, he founded Tuskegee University, a school that still graduates African American professionals and others in abundance. On the opposite side of Washington's accommodationist approach was Dr. William Edward Burghardt DuBois. Professor DuBois was raised not far from Amherst - in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. He attended numerous schools and universities, receiving his doctoral degree at 27 years-old from Harvard University. However, his learning was far broader than even his formal education suggests. Furthermore, Professor DuBois remains, to this day, the most accomplished scholar in North American history - bar none.
At any rate, DuBois was all for economic advancement, but he felt that it was no use learning how to use a hammer if the storekeeper would not sell you nails. Therefore, the great professor promoted the idea of resistance; that is, he felt that folks should protest those things that were unfavorable to their being. The following passage is from one of his many personal credos that he wrote throughout his life as a habit of "checking up" on his own work and ideals. This particular excerpt was written almost 100 years ago. It first appeared in The Crisis magazine, the organ of the NAACP (DuBois helped found both that long-standing civil rights organization and the aforementioned periodical.): “I am by birth and law a free black American citizen. As such I have both rights and duties. If I neglect my duties my rights are always in danger. If I do not maintain my rights I cannot perform my duties. I will listen, therefore, neither to the fool who would make me neglect the things that I ought to do, nor to the rascal who advises me to forget the opportunities which I and my children ought to have, and must have, and will have.”
Hardly a weekend goes by in Amherst without a political group of some sort standing in front of the town common with a huge protest sign. Professor W. E. B. DuBois once wrote, "Protest is the soul of democracy." Dr. DuBois was telling Us that being able to resolve conflicts in a non-violent manner must be at the heart of Our ability to live together, in spite of Our differences.
Starting in childhood, people are taught by their parents or guardians how they should respond to those who live outside of the family unit. That is, children learn when, where, and with whom they can express kindness or anger, acceptance or disapproval. The most prominent reason for this seems to lie in the essence of human relationships, which are, more often than not, political. And so it is Aristotle who is credited with calling humans “ politikon zoon” or political animals (see Landmarks of Tomorrow, by Peter F. Drucker.)
Anyhow, especially for children, regardless of their skin colors, whose parents are not part of the ruling body in any particular community, learning early when, where, and with whom to be accommodating or resistant has largely determined said children's ability to survive in North America throughout life. Although there has been a tendency of late for parents from all cultures and non-ruling classes to teach their children to stand up for themselves at all costs, many parents still nurture their children according to the assumptions of various religions, that being, somehow yielding is a sign of "moral" Uprightness.
Further, while Professor DuBois was not an accommodationist, he did believe strongly that Our society's so-called racial problems would only be solved through integration (in other words, DuBois had his own version of "cast down your buckets.") Unfortunately, he and others both before and after him wrongly mistook integration for inclusion. For instance, Polish Americans, Irish Americans, Italian Americans, Jews and other European Americans often, by choice, live in homogeneous communities that are, in fact, quite segregated. Yet, they need not "integrate" in order to receive access to opportunity or responsibility in Our society. Why is that?
Worse yet, not only are African Americans requested to integrate, but We are also expected to give up some, if not all, of Our cultural habits in doing so. In light of everything mentioned above, that is, understanding DuBois' position on integration makes it easy to see why he supported the Hope Church - which was still believed by many African Americans in Amherst, at the time, to be connected with Amherst College. Hope Church has always had a "mixed" membership. However, in the early days, such amalgamation was only acknowledged in terms of "race." Yet, these days, the congregation is made up of various cultures, some of which would defy traditional anthropological definitions (for example, single parents - who choose to be, bi-ethnic families and homosexuals of both sexes.)
Nonetheless, a mere eleven years after what would be Washington's last trip to Amherst, and in spite of their differences, DuBois wrote a passionate obituary in honor of Washington in the NAACP's The Crisis magazine. It read, in part: The death of Mr. Washington marks an epoch in the history of America. He was the greatest Negro leader since Frederick Douglass, and the most distinguished man, Black or White, who has come out of the South since the Civil War. His fame was international and his influence far-reaching. Of the good that he accomplished there can be no oubt...On the other hand, in stern justice, We must lay on the soul of this man, a heavy responsibility for the consummation of Black disenfranchisement, the decline of the Black college and public school and the firmer establishment of color caste in this land. What is done is done. This is no fit time for recrimination or complaint. Gravely and with bowed head let us receive what this great figure gave of good, silently rejecting all else."
The great Marcus Garvey initially came to the USA in order to meet his idol, Booker T. Washington. Unfortunately, Washington died before such an encounter ever took place. Nevertheless, out of Garvey, grew Elijah Muhammad. Out of Elijah Muhammad, grew men like Malcolm X, Muhammad Ali, and Louis Farrakhan. As well, countless African American thinkers, of both sexes, have grown out of Professor DuBois’ massive intellectual capacity. In fact, it can be quite simply asserted that NO legitimate African American scholar or activist who has lived during the past 100 years or four generations can deny the relevance of the role that at least one of these two geniuses played, personally, in both his or her intellectual development and vision.
Cheers!
G. Djata Bumpus
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